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Reservation system in India is a system of affirmative action that aims to provide representation and opportunities to the historically disadvantaged and marginalized groups in India, such as the Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC), and Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). Reservation system in India is implemented in various domains, such as education, employment, and politics, by allocating a certain percentage of seats or positions to the eligible candidates belonging to these groups.
But what is the origin, evolution, rationale, objectives, benefits, drawbacks, challenges, and alternatives of reservation system in India? How does reservation system in India compare and contrast with other countries that have similar policies of affirmative action? How does reservation system in India affect or be affected by the changing socio-economic and political scenario in India and the world? How does reservation system in India fulfill or fail to fulfill its vision, mission, and goal of social justice and equality for all Indians?
In this article, we will answer these questions and more by providing you with a comprehensive and critical analysis of reservation system in India from various angles. We will examine reservation system in India from historical, sociological, economic, political, legal, ethical, psychological, cultural, and global perspectives. We will also suggest some possible solutions and recommendations to improve reservation system in India.
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Reservation System in India: A Historical Perspective
Reservation system in India – Bharat is a system of affirmative action that aims to provide representation and opportunities to the historically disadvantaged and marginalized groups in India, such as the Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC), and more recently, the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). Reservation is implemented in various domains, such as education, employment, and politics, by allocating a certain percentage of seats or positions to the eligible candidates belonging to these groups.
Reservation is a controversial and complex topic that has been debated for decades in India. It has generated various opinions, perspectives, arguments, and counter-arguments from different stakeholders, such as politicians, activists, academics, media, and the general public. Reservation has also been challenged and defended in various courts of law, including the Supreme Court of India. Reservation has also been influenced and affected by various social, economic, political, and historical factors, such as caste, class, gender, religion, region, development, globalization, democracy, and human rights.
In this article, we will critically analyze the issue of reservation in India from various angles. We will examine the origin, evolution, rationale, objectives, benefits, drawbacks, challenges, and alternatives of reservation in India. We will also look at some recent developments and trends related to reservation in India, such as the caste-based census in Bihar, the Maratha reservation in Maharashtra, and the example of 10% reservation for EWS. We will also compare and contrast the reservation system in India with other countries that have similar policies of affirmative action. We will also suggest some possible solutions and recommendations to improve the reservation system in India.
Our main argument is that reservation is a necessary but insufficient measure to address the deep-rooted inequalities and injustices in Indian society. Reservation alone cannot solve the problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, discrimination, violence, and underdevelopment that plague millions of Indians. Reservation needs to be complemented by other policies and programs that aim to empower and uplift the disadvantaged and marginalized groups in India. Reservation also needs to be reformed and refined to make it more effective, efficient, transparent, accountable, and inclusive.
We hope that this article will provide you with some useful information and insights on reservation in India. We also hope that this article will stimulate your interest and curiosity to learn more about this important and relevant topic. We welcome your feedback and comments on this article. Thank you for reading. ?
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The Origin and Evolution of Reservation in India
Reservation System in India: A Global Comparison
Reservation in India has a long and complex history that can be traced back to the colonial era. The British rulers introduced various policies and laws to classify and divide the Indian population into different categories based on caste, religion, race, and ethnicity. These categories were used to grant or deny rights, privileges, opportunities, and resources to different groups of Indians. The British also used these categories to create and manipulate divisions and conflicts among the Indians to weaken their resistance and solidarity.
Some of the prominent policies and laws that shaped the reservation system in India are:
- The Government of India Act of 1909, also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, which introduced separate electorates for Muslims in India.
- The Government of India Act of 1919, also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, which extended separate electorates to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans in India.
- The Government of India Act of 1935, which further expanded separate electorates to depressed classes (later known as Scheduled Castes), women, laborers, and landholders in India.
- The Poona Pact of 1932, which was an agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to replace separate electorates for depressed classes with reserved seats in general electorates.
- The Communal Award of 1932, which was a decision by the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald to grant separate electorates to depressed classes, Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, and Marathas in India.
These policies and laws created a system of political representation based on caste and religion that had a lasting impact on the Indian society and polity. They also sparked various movements and struggles for social justice and equality by different groups of Indians, such as the Dalit movement led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the backward classes movement led by Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, the tribal movement led by Jaipal Singh Munda, and the women’s movement led by Sarojini Naidu.
After India gained independence from the British rule in 1947, the Constituent Assembly of India drafted the Constitution of India, which is the supreme law of the land. The Constitution of India adopted a system of reservation for Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC) in education, employment, and politics. The Constitution also abolished untouchability and discrimination based on caste, religion, race, sex, or place of birth. The Constitution also empowered the Parliament and the State Legislatures to make laws for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens.
Some of the important constitutional provisions and amendments that relate to reservation in India are:
- Article 15(4), which empowers the State to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for SCs and STs.
- Article 16(4), which empowers the State to make provisions for reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any backward class of citizens who are not adequately represented in the services under the State.
- Article 46, which directs the State to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, especially SCs and STs.
- Article 330 and 332, which provide for reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the House of People (Lok Sabha) and in the Legislative Assemblies of every State.
- Article 335, which states that the claims of SCs and STs shall be taken into consideration while making appointments to services and posts under the Union or a State.
- Article 338, 338A, and 338B, which establish National Commissions for SCs, STs, and OBCs respectively to safeguard their rights and interests.
- Article 340, which empowers the President to appoint a Commission to investigate the conditions of socially and educationally backward classes and suggest measures for their improvement.
- Article 341 and 342, which empower the President to specify SCs and STs in relation to any State or Union Territory.
The Constitution (First Amendment) Act of 1951 added clause (4) to Article 15 to enable reservation for backward classes in educational institutions.
The Constitution (Seventy-Seventh Amendment) Act of 1995 added clause (4A) to Article 16 to enable reservation in promotions for SCs and STs.
The Constitution (Eighty-First Amendment) Act of 2000 added clause (4B) to Article 16 to enable carry forward of unfilled reserved vacancies.
The Constitution (Eighty-Second Amendment) Act of 2000 added a proviso to Article 335 to enable relaxation of qualifying marks or standards for SCs and STs.
The Constitution (Eighty-Fifth Amendment) Act of 2001 modified clause (4A) of Article 16 to enable consequential seniority for SCs and STs in promotions.
The Constitution (Ninety-Third Amendment) Act of 2005 added clause (5) to Article 15 to enable reservation for SCs, STs, and OBCs in private unaided educational institutions.
The Constitution (One Hundred and Second Amendment) Act of 2018 added Articles 338B and 342A to empower the National Commission for Backward Classes and the President to specify OBCs in relation to any State or Union Territory.
The Constitution (One Hundred and Third Amendment) Act of 2019 added clauses (6) to Articles 15 and 16 to enable reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in education, employment, and politics.
These constitutional provisions and amendments have shaped the reservation system in India over the years. They have also been challenged and upheld by various judgments of the Supreme Court of India, such as the Champakam Dorairajan case (1951), the M.R. Balaji case (1963), the Indra Sawhney case (1992), the Nagaraj case (2006), the Jarnail Singh case (2018), and the Maratha reservation case (2020).
Reservation in India has evolved from a system of political representation based on caste and religion to a system of affirmative action based on social and economic backwardness. Reservation in India has also expanded from a system of reservation for SCs and STs to a system of reservation for OBCs and EWS. Reservation in India has also changed from a system of reservation for education and employment to a system of reservation for politics and promotions. Reservation in India has also varied from a system of reservation at the central level to a system of reservation at the state level.
Reservation in India is a dynamic and evolving system that reflects the changing realities and aspirations of the Indian society. Reservation in India is also a contested and complex system that raises various issues and challenges for the Indian polity. Reservation in India is also a necessary and insufficient system that requires other measures and reforms for the Indian development.
The Rationale and Objectives of Reservation in India
Reservation in India is based on the rationale and objectives of social justice and equality. Reservation in India aims to achieve the following goals:
- To provide representation and participation to the historically oppressed and excluded groups in India, such as SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS, in various domains of public life, such as education, employment, and politics.
- To provide opportunities and access to the historically deprived and discriminated groups in India, such as SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS, in various fields of social and economic development, such as education, employment, and entrepreneurship.
- To provide empowerment and dignity to the historically exploited and marginalized groups in India, such as SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS, by enhancing their self-confidence, self-respect, and self-reliance.
- To provide redressal and compensation to the historically wronged and victimized groups in India, such as SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS, by correcting the historical injustices and atrocities committed against them.
- To provide diversity and inclusion to the historically homogeneous and dominant groups in India, such as upper castes and classes, by promoting a culture of tolerance, respect, and harmony among different groups of Indians.
Reservation in India is based on the premise that all Indians are equal citizens of a democratic republic and have equal rights and duties. Reservation in India is also based on the recognition that all Indians are not equal in terms of their social and economic status and have unequal opportunities and outcomes. Reservation in India is also based on the acknowledgment that all Indians are not equal in terms of their historical experiences and have unequal burdens and benefits. Reservation in India is also based on the aspiration that all Indians can become equal in terms of their potential and capabilities and have equal chances and choices.
Reservation in India is a means to an end and not an end in itself. Reservation in India is a tool to achieve social justice and equality and not a substitute for them. Reservation in India is a temporary measure and not a permanent solution. Reservation in India is a positive discrimination and not a negative discrimination.
Reservation in India is justified by various arguments and theories from different disciplines and perspectives, such as sociology, economics, politics, law, ethics, psychology, history, culture, etc. Some of the common arguments and theories that support reservation in India are: The compensatory justice argument: This argument states that reservation is a form of compensation for the past oppression and exploitation of certain groups by other groups. Reservation is a way of restoring the balance of power and resources among different groups that have been historically unequal. The distributive justice argument: This argument states that reservation is a form of redistribution of wealth and opportunities among different groups that have been historically unequal. Reservation is a way of ensuring a fair share of public goods and services among different groups that have been historically deprived. The protective discrimination argument: This argument states that reservation is a form of protection for certain groups that are vulnerable to discrimination and violence by other groups. Reservation is a way of safeguarding the rights and interests of different groups that have been historically marginalized. The proportional representation argument: This argument states that reservation is a form of representation for certain groups that are underrepresented or unrepresented in various domains of public life. Reservation is a way of ensuring a voice and participation for different groups that have been historically excluded. The affirmative action argument: This argument states that reservation is a form of action for certain groups that are disadvantaged or backward in various fields of social and economic development. Reservation is a way of enhancing the capabilities and outcomes for different groups that have been historically lagging behind. The diversity argument: This argument states that reservation is a form of inclusion for certain groups that are diverse or different from the mainstream or dominant groups. Reservation is a way of promoting a culture of tolerance, respect, and harmony among different groups that have been historically homogeneous or hegemonic. These arguments and theories provide various reasons and evidence for reservation in India. They also highlight the benefits and advantages of reservation in India for different groups as well as for the society as a whole.
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The Benefits and Drawbacks of Reservation in India
Reservation in India has both benefits and drawbacks for different groups as well as for the society as a whole. Reservation in India has some positive and negative impacts on various aspects of social and economic development, such as education, employment, income, poverty, health, empowerment, representation, diversity, harmony, etc.
Some of the benefits and drawbacks of reservation in India are:
- Education: Reservation in India has increased the access and enrollment of SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS in various educational institutions, especially in higher education. Reservation in India has also improved the literacy and educational attainment of these groups. However, reservation in India has also created some problems, such as the quality and relevance of education, the availability and utilization of resources, the merit and performance of students, the discrimination and harassment of students, etc.
- Employment: Reservation in India has increased the representation and participation of SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS in various public sector jobs, especially in higher positions. Reservation in India has also enhanced the income and livelihood of these groups. However, reservation in India has also created some issues, such as the efficiency and productivity of employees, the availability and allocation of vacancies, the merit and seniority of employees, the discrimination and resentment of employees, etc.
- Income: Reservation in India has increased the income and wealth of SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS by providing them with better education and employment opportunities. Reservation in India has also reduced the income and wealth inequality among different groups. However, reservation in India has also created some challenges, such as the distribution and redistribution of income and wealth, the taxation and expenditure of income and wealth, the corruption and leakage of income and wealth, etc.
- Poverty: Reservation in India has reduced the poverty and deprivation of SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS by providing them with better education and employment opportunities. Reservation in India has also improved the living standards and well-being of these groups. However, reservation in India has also created some difficulties, such as the measurement and identification of poverty and deprivation, the targeting and coverage of poverty and deprivation, the alleviation and eradication of poverty and deprivation, etc.
- Health: Reservation in India has improved the health and nutrition of SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS by providing them with better education and employment opportunities. Reservation in India has also enhanced the health outcomes and indicators of these groups. However, reservation in India has also created some complications, such as the quality and accessibility of health care services, the availability and affordability of health care resources, the prevention and treatment of health care problems, etc.
- Empowerment: Reservation in India has empowered SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS by providing them with better education and employment opportunities. Reservation in India has also increased their self-confidence, self-respect, and self-reliance. However, reservation in India has also created some conflicts, such as the empowerment and disempowerment of different groups, the empowerment and dependency of different groups, the empowerment and accountability of different groups, etc.
- Representation: Reservation in India has increased the representation and participation of SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS in various political institutions, especially in legislative bodies. Reservation in India has also improved their voice and influence in political decision-making. However, reservation in India has also created some dilemmas, such as the representation and responsiveness of different groups, the representation and accountability of different groups, the representation and effectiveness of different groups, etc.
- Diversity: Reservation in India has increased the diversity and inclusion of SCs, STs, OBCs, and EWS in various social institutions, especially in educational institutions. Reservation in India has also promoted a culture of tolerance, respect, and harmony among different groups. However, reservation in India has also created some tensions, such as the diversity and unity of different groups, the diversity and identity of different groups, the diversity and conflict of different groups, etc.
These benefits and drawbacks of reservation in India show that reservation is a double-edged sword that can have both positive and negative consequences for different groups as well as for the society as a whole. Reservation is not a panacea that can solve all the problems of social justice and equality. Reservation is also not a poison that can create all the problems of social injustice and inequality. Reservation is a complex phenomenon that requires careful analysis and evaluation from multiple perspectives.
The Challenges and Alternatives of Reservation in India
Reservation in India faces various challenges and limitations that affect its implementation and impact. Reservation in India also has various alternatives and options that can complement or replace it. Some of the major challenges and alternatives of reservation in India are:
- Identification: One of the key challenges of reservation in India is the identification and classification of the eligible groups for reservation. There is no clear and consistent criteria or methodology for defining and determining who belongs to SCs, STs, OBCs, or EWS. There is also no reliable and updated data or census on the population and characteristics of these groups. This leads to various problems, such as the inclusion and exclusion errors, the over-representation and under-representation of different groups, the manipulation and falsification of certificates, etc.
- Implementation: Another major challenge of reservation in India is the implementation and enforcement of the reservation policies and laws. There is no effective and efficient mechanism or authority for monitoring and regulating the reservation system in India. There is also no adequate and timely provision or allocation of resources and infrastructure for implementing the reservation system in India. This leads to various issues, such as the non-implementation and violation of reservation norms, the backlog and shortfall of reserved seats or posts, the corruption and nepotism in reservation processes, etc.
- Impact: A third major challenge of reservation in India is the impact and outcome of the reservation system in India. There is no comprehensive and rigorous evaluation or assessment of the reservation system in India. There is also no clear and consistent evidence or indicators for measuring the benefits and drawbacks of reservation in India. This leads to various questions, such as the effectiveness and efficiency of reservation in India, the costs and benefits of reservation in India, the sustainability and durability of reservation in India, etc.
- Alternatives: One of the possible alternatives of reservation in India is to shift from a caste-based or class-based system of reservation to a need-based or merit-based system of reservation. This would entail providing reservation to those who are most needy or deserving regardless of their caste or class background. This would also entail providing reservation based on objective and transparent criteria or parameters such as income, education, performance, etc.
- Another possible alternative of reservation in India is to supplement or replace the quota system of reservation with a non-quota system of reservation. This would entail providing other forms of support or assistance to the disadvantaged or backward groups such as scholarships, loans, subsidies, training, mentoring, etc. This would also entail providing incentives or rewards to those who promote or facilitate the inclusion or empowerment of these groups such as institutions, employers, individuals, etc.
- A third possible alternative of reservation in India is to expand or diversify the scope or domain of reservation beyond education, employment, and politics to other areas such as culture, media, sports, arts, etc. This would entail providing representation and participation to the marginalized or underrepresented groups in various fields of social and cultural life. This would also entail providing recognition and appreciation to the diverse or different groups for their contributions and achievements in various fields of social and cultural life.
These challenges and alternatives of reservation in India suggest that reservation is a complex and dynamic system that requires constant review and reform. Reservation is not a static or fixed system that can be taken for granted or ignored. Reservation is a flexible and adaptable system that can be modified or improved according to the changing needs and aspirations of the Indian society.
The Future and Prospects of Reservation in India
The Past, A Present, and A Future
Reservation in India is a system that has a past, a present, and a future. Reservation in India is a system that has been influenced by various factors and forces in the past, is facing various challenges and opportunities in the present, and will have various implications and consequences in the future. Reservation in India is a system that has a vision, a mission, and a goal. Reservation in India is a system that aims to achieve social justice and equality for all Indians.
What is the future and prospects of reservation in India? How will reservation in India change or remain the same in the coming years? How will reservation in India affect or be affected by the changing socio-economic and political scenario in India and the world? How will reservation in India fulfill or fail to fulfill its vision, mission, and goal?
We will look at some of the possible scenarios and trends that may shape the future and prospects of reservation in India. We will also look at some of the possible suggestions and recommendations that may improve the future and prospects of reservation in India. We will also look at some of the possible hopes and fears that may accompany the future and prospects of reservation in India.
Some of the possible scenarios and trends that may shape the future and prospects of reservation in India are:
- The demand and supply scenario: This scenario envisages that the demand for reservation will increase or decrease depending on the supply of opportunities and resources for different groups. If the opportunities and resources are scarce or unequal, then the demand for reservation will increase. If the opportunities and resources are abundant or equal, then the demand for reservation will decrease.
- The inclusion and exclusion scenario: This scenario envisages that the inclusion or exclusion of different groups in reservation will change depending on their social and economic status and their political influence. If a group is socially and economically backward or politically weak, then it will seek inclusion in reservation. If a group is socially and economically advanced or politically strong, then it will seek exclusion from reservation.
- The expansion and contraction scenario: This scenario envisages that the scope or domain of reservation will expand or contract depending on the needs and aspirations of different groups. If a group needs or aspires for more representation or participation in a certain field or sector, then it will seek expansion of reservation. If a group does not need or aspire for more representation or participation in a certain field or sector, then it will seek contraction of reservation.
- The reform and resistance scenario: This scenario envisages that the reform or resistance of reservation will occur depending on the benefits and drawbacks of reservation for different groups. If a group benefits or supports reservation, then it will seek reform of reservation. If a group suffers or opposes reservation, then it will seek resistance of reservation.
Some of the possible suggestions and recommendations that may improve the future and prospects of reservation in India are:
- The review and revision suggestion: This suggestion proposes that reservation should be periodically reviewed and revised based on objective and transparent data and criteria. Reservation should be updated and adjusted according to the changing realities and aspirations of different groups.
- The performance and outcome suggestion: This suggestion proposes that reservation should be based on performance and outcome rather than on identity and entitlement. Reservation should be linked to merit and achievement rather than to caste and class.
- The empowerment and development suggestion: This suggestion proposes that reservation should be complemented by other policies and programs that aim to empower and develop the disadvantaged and backward groups. Reservation should be accompanied by measures such as education, health, skill development, entrepreneurship, etc.
- The dialogue and consensus suggestion: This suggestion proposes that reservation should be decided by dialogue and consensus among different groups rather than by conflict and coercion. Reservation should be based on mutual respect and understanding rather than on mutual distrust and hatred.
Some of the possible hopes and fears that may accompany the future and prospects of reservation in India are:
- The hope of social justice and equality: This hope expects that reservation will lead to social justice and equality for all Indians by providing representation, participation, opportunity, access, empowerment, dignity, redressal, compensation, diversity, and inclusion to the historically oppressed, excluded, deprived, discriminated, exploited, marginalized, wronged, and victimized groups.
- The fear of social injustice and inequality: This fear fears that reservation will lead to social injustice and inequality for all Indians by creating division, conflict, resentment, discrimination, violence, corruption, inefficiency, dependency, disempowerment, disunity, and exclusion among different groups.
The future and prospects of reservation in India are uncertain and unpredictable. Reservation in India may change or remain the same, may affect or be affected, may fulfill or fail to fulfill its vision, mission, and goal. Reservation in India may have positive or negative consequences for different groups as well as for the society as a whole. Reservation in India is a system that has a future and prospects that depend on the choices and actions of all Indians.
The Conclusion and Summary of Reservation in India
Reservation in India is a system of affirmative action that aims to provide representation and opportunities to the historically disadvantaged and marginalized groups in India, such as the Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC), and Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). Reservation in India is implemented in various domains, such as education, employment, and politics, by allocating a certain percentage of seats or positions to the eligible candidates belonging to these groups.
In this article, we have critically analyzed the issue of reservation in India from various angles. We have examined the origin, evolution, rationale, objectives, benefits, drawbacks, challenges, and alternatives of reservation in India. We have also looked at some recent developments and trends related to reservation in India, such as the caste-based census in Bihar, the Maratha reservation in Maharashtra, and the 10% reservation for EWS. We have also suggested some possible solutions and recommendations to improve the reservation system in India.
Our main argument is that reservation is a necessary but insufficient measure to address the deep-rooted inequalities and injustices in Indian society. Reservation alone cannot solve the problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, discrimination, violence, and underdevelopment that plague millions of Indians. Reservation needs to be complemented by other policies and programs that aim to empower and uplift the disadvantaged and marginalized groups in India. Reservation also needs to be reformed and refined to make it more effective, efficient, transparent, accountable, and inclusive.
We hope that this article has provided you with some useful information and insights on reservation in India. We also hope that this article has stimulated your interest and curiosity to learn more about this important and relevant topic. We welcome your feedback and comments on this article. Thank you for reading. ?
If you still need to read more about the Reservation system in India
Supplement
The reservation system in India is a system of affirmative action that aims to provide representation and opportunities to the historically disadvantaged and marginalized groups in India, such as the Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC), and Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). The reservation system in India is implemented in various domains, such as education, employment, and politics, by allocating a certain percentage of seats or positions to the eligible candidates belonging to these groups.
The reservation system in India is based on the constitutional provisions and amendments, the legal challenges and defenses, and the judicial verdicts and interpretations related to reservation in India. The reservation system in India is also influenced by the social, economic, and political factors that affect the status and condition of different groups in India.
The different categories of people who qualify for reservation in India are:
- SC: Scheduled Castes are the social groups that have historically faced social disadvantage, discrimination, and exclusion in India due to the prevailing caste system. They are also known as Dalits or Harijans. They constitute about 16.6% of the population of India according to the 2011 census1. They have 15% reservation in education and employment and 16.6% reservation in politics2.
- ST: Scheduled Tribes are the indigenous communities in India that have been, and in many cases, continue to be, socially and economically marginalized. They are also known as Adivasis or Vanavasis. They constitute about 8.6% of the population of India according to the 2011 census1. They have 7.5% reservation in education and employment and 8.6% reservation in politics2.
- OBC: Other Backward Classes are the castes which are educationally or socially disadvantaged. They are also known as Shudras or Varnasankaras. They constitute about 41% of the population of India according to the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) data3. They have 27% reservation in education and employment and 27% reservation in politics2.
- EWS: Economically Weaker Sections are the people who belong to any caste or community but have an annual income below a certain threshold. They are also known as General Category or Savarnas. They constitute about 10% of the population of India according to the Government of India estimate. They have 10% reservation in education and employment and 10% reservation in politics2.
The social groups of the society that are not part of the reservation system in India are:
- Upper Castes: Upper Castes are the social groups that have historically enjoyed social advantage, privilege, and dominance in India due to the prevailing caste system. They are also known as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, or Vaishyas. They constitute about 24.8% of the population of India according to the NSSO data3. They do not have any reservation in education, employment, or politics.
- Minorities: Minorities are the religious or linguistic groups that have a smaller population than the majority group in India. They include Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, Jews, etc. They constitute about 19.4% of the population of India according to the 2011 census1. They do not have any specific reservation in education, employment, or politics, but they can avail some benefits under OBC or EWS categories if they meet the criteria.
The Wait Listed
The social groups of the society that are not part of the reservation system in India but are eager to participate given the benefits that have been realized as they were left behind are many but a few and recent examples that could be quoted are :
- Marathas: Marathas are a dominant caste group in Maharashtra that claim to be descendants of warrior king Shivaji. They constitute about 32% of the population of Maharashtra according to some estimates. They have been demanding reservation in education and employment since 1980s on the grounds of economic backwardness and historical injustice. In 2018, they were granted 16% reservation by the Maharashtra government under a new category called Socially and Educationally Backward Class (SEBC). However, this was challenged in the Supreme Court by some petitioners who argued that it violated the 50% cap on caste-based reservations imposed by the Supreme Court in its landmark judgment in Indra Sawhney vs Union Of India case in 1992. The Supreme Court stayed the implementation of Maratha reservation in September 2020 and referred the matter to a larger bench for final decision.
- Jats: Jats are a dominant caste group in Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and other states that claim to be descendants of ancient Indo-Aryan tribes. They constitute about 25% of the population of Haryana according to some estimates. They have been demanding reservation in education and employment since 1990s on the grounds of economic backwardness and historical injustice. In 2014, they were granted 10% reservation by the UPA government under a new category called Special Backward Class (SBC). However, this was quashed by the Supreme Court in 2015 on the grounds that Jats were not socially and educationally backward and that the 50% cap on caste-based reservations was breached. The Jats have been protesting and agitating for reservation since then, causing violence and disruption in several states.
- Patidars: Patidars are a dominant caste group in Gujarat that claim to be descendants of Lord Rama’s son Luv. They constitute about 12% of the population of Gujarat according to some estimates. They have been demanding reservation in education and employment since 2015 on the grounds of economic backwardness and lack of opportunities. They have been led by a young leader named Hardik Patel who formed a movement called Patidar Anamat Andolan Samiti (PAAS). They have been staging rallies and demonstrations for reservation, sometimes clashing with the police and other groups. In 2018, they were offered 10% reservation by the BJP government under a new category called Economically Backward Class (EBC). However, this was rejected by the Patidars who insisted on OBC status and reservation. The EBC quota was also struck down by the Gujarat High Court in 2019 on the grounds that it violated the 50% cap on caste-based reservations and that economic criteria alone cannot be the basis for reservation.
There may be other groups as well who have similar demands or aspirations for reservation in India.
Worldwide Examples
Countries or Civilizations
I think that adding some examples from other countries or civilizations that have faced similar issues and their approaches that succeeded or failed could be a useful for those who are eager to learn about this topic in details. It could help to provide a global and comparative perspective on the topic of affirmative action and its effects and challenges.
There are some web sources that provide some examples of affirmative action policies in other countries or civilizations. Here are some of them:
- Affirmative action around the world: This article from The Conversation provides an overview of affirmative action policies in different countries, such as Brazil, Malaysia, South Africa, India, China, and France. It also discusses some of the common patterns, benefits, drawbacks, and controversies of these policies.
- AROUND THE WORLD IN 80 WAYS: Affirmative Action around the World: This video from the Hoover Institution features Thomas Sowell, a renowned economist and social critic, who talks about his book on affirmative action around the world. He compares and contrasts the experiences and outcomes of different countries that have adopted affirmative action policies, such as India, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and the United States.
- 13 Affirmative Action Examples (2023): This article from Helpful Professor provides 13 examples of affirmative action policies in different countries and domains, such as education, employment, politics, sports, etc. It also explains the rationale, objectives, and effects of these policies.
- A HISTORICO-COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION POLICIES AND …: This academic paper from the University of Pretoria compares the affirmative action policies of South Africa and Namibia with those of other countries, such as India, Malaysia, Pakistan, Germany, Northern Ireland, Yugoslavia, Peru, Nigeria, Sweden, etc. It also analyzes the historical, legal, political, and social factors that influenced these policies.
- Understanding affirmative action in a global context: This article from The Hill provides a global context for understanding affirmative action policies in different countries. It also discusses some of the challenges and opportunities for implementing these policies in a diverse and dynamic world.
- More than Affirmative Action: China’s Preferential Policy in the …: This working paper from Harvard-Yenching Institute examines China’s preferential policy for ethnic minorities in higher education. It also explores the historical background, theoretical framework, policy design, implementation process, and evaluation results of this policy.
Some quick examples of affirmative action policies in other countries or civilizations
Here are some of them:
- The Employment Equity Act in South Africa: The Employment Equity Act, along with the Black Economic Empowerment program, aims to bring equality in post-apartheid South Africa. It requires employers to implement affirmative action measures to ensure that suitably qualified people from designated groups (black people, women, and people with disabilities) have equal opportunities and are equitably represented in all occupational levels in the workforce1.
- Class-Based Policy in Israel: During the early 2000s, Israel’s top four universities incorporated a unique affirmative action policy. They admitted students from low socioeconomic backgrounds based on their relative ranking within their high school, rather than their absolute score on the national matriculation exam. This policy increased the chances of admission for students from disadvantaged backgrounds without lowering the academic standards of the universities1.
- The Preferential Policy for Ethnic Minorities in China: China has a preferential policy for ethnic minorities in higher education that grants them extra points on the national college entrance exam, lowers the admission cutoff scores, and reserves a certain number of seats for them in universities. This policy aims to promote the educational development and social integration of ethnic minorities, who make up about 8.5% of China’s population but are mostly concentrated in less developed regions2.
As an inspiration try to understand what happens in countries and cultures where there is discrimination or no effort on bringing the entire population together. I hope this will motivate you and others to work towards a more inclusive and harmonious society.
Discrimination is the unjust or prejudiced treatment of different categories of people or things based on their identity, such as race, ethnicity, nationality, class, caste, religion, belief, sex, gender, language, sexual orientation, gender identity, sex characteristics, age, health or other status. Discrimination violates the human rights and dignity of people and denies them their full potential and opportunities.
Discrimination can have negative consequences for individuals, groups, and societies. Some of the effects of discrimination are:
- Psychological harm: Discrimination can cause stress, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, anger, frustration, isolation, fear, and trauma for the victims. It can also affect their mental health and well-being in the long term.
- Physical harm: Discrimination can lead to violence, abuse, harassment, torture, rape, murder, or genocide for the victims. It can also affect their physical health and safety in the long term.
- Social harm: Discrimination can create division, hatred, hostility, resentment, mistrust, and conflict among different groups in society. It can also affect their social cohesion and stability in the long term.
- Economic harm: Discrimination can limit the access to education, employment, income, wealth, resources, and services for the victims. It can also affect their economic development and growth in the long term.
- Political harm: Discrimination can restrict the participation and representation of different groups in decision-making processes and institutions. It can also affect their political rights and freedoms in the long term.
- Cultural harm: Discrimination can erode the diversity and richness of different cultures and traditions. It can also affect their cultural identity and expression in the long term.
On the other hand, when there is no discrimination or when there is an effort to bring the entire population together, there can be positive outcomes for individuals, groups, and societies. Some of the benefits of inclusion are:
- Psychological well-being: Inclusion can foster a sense of belonging, acceptance, respect, and appreciation for oneself and others. It can also enhance one’s mental health and well-being in the long term.
- Physical well-being: Inclusion can prevent violence, abuse, harassment, torture, rape, murder, or genocide for oneself and others. It can also improve one’s physical health and safety in the long term.
- Social well-being: Inclusion can promote unity, love, compassion, cooperation, and peace among different groups in society. It can also improve social cohesion and stability in the long term.
- Economic well-being: Inclusion can increase the access to education, employment, income, wealth, resources, and services for oneself and others. It can also improve economic development and growth in the long term.
- Political well-being: Inclusion can enhance the participation and representation of different groups in decision-making processes and institutions. It can also improve political rights and freedoms in the long term.
- Cultural well-being: Inclusion can celebrate the diversity and richness of different cultures and traditions. It can also improve cultural identity and expression in the long term.
These are some of the effects of discrimination and inclusion on individuals, groups, and societies. I hope this inspires you to take action against discrimination and to work towards inclusion in your own context. You can find more information and examples of discrimination and inclusion in different countries and cultures in the web sources that I have provided you earlier123.
